Category Archives: History of Black Hair

Black Hair, History of Black Hair, natural hair

Natural Hair: Identity, Beauty, and the Power of Embracing Your Roots

This photograph is the property of its respective owner. No copyright infringement intended.

Natural hair is more than a style—it is an expression of identity, culture, and self-acceptance. For many Black women and men, natural hair represents a return to authenticity and a refusal to conform to standards that were never created with them in mind. The beauty and freedom of natural hair stretch beyond aesthetics; it is deeply spiritual, emotional, historical, and physical.

Natural hair carries tremendous benefits, starting with its health. Free from harsh chemicals, relaxers, and heat damage, natural hair can thrive in its truest state. Without chemical breakdown, the curl pattern stays strong, the strands retain elasticity, and the scalp experiences less irritation. The health benefits alone encourage many to embrace their natural texture unapologetically.

Natural hair also promotes self-love by encouraging individuals to connect with their authentic selves. It requires one to accept their God-given crown exactly as it grows. This acceptance builds confidence, identity, and pride, especially in a world where European beauty standards still dominate mainstream perceptions.

Another benefit of natural hair is its versatility. Curls, coils, kinks, locs, twist-outs, braid-outs, afros, bantu knots, silk presses—natural hair offers endless styling options. This adaptability allows creative expression and empowers individuals to showcase their personality through their look.

Beyond versatility, natural hair symbolizes heritage. It carries the stories of ancestors who braided maps into hair, used it to store seeds during the Middle Passage, and saw their identity attacked and regulated through laws. Wearing natural hair today is a reclaiming of dignity and cultural power.

Despite its value, natural hair has often been misunderstood or unaccepted in society. Many people struggle with it because they were conditioned to believe straight hair is “neat,” “professional,” or “beautiful,” while natural hair was labeled as “wild” or “unmanageable.” These beliefs are rooted in racism and Eurocentric standards that have shaped beauty norms for centuries.

Even today, some individuals do not like their natural hair because they were taught to see it as an inconvenience rather than a blessing. Internalized bias can lead people to reject their curl patterns, compare themselves to others, or feel pressure to alter their appearance. Healing this mindset requires unlearning generational narratives and embracing new ones.

Social acceptance of natural hair has improved, yet discrimination still exists. Workplaces, schools, and public spaces have historically penalized natural textures. Laws like the CROWN Act prove that acceptance is still evolving, highlighting the need for continued advocacy and education surrounding Black hair.

Though society’s acceptance fluctuates, natural hair is gaining visibility and representation. More public figures, influencers, and everyday people proudly embrace their coils, helping normalize natural textures and expand definitions of beauty. The movement encourages younger generations to grow up loving their hair.

Caring for natural hair requires patience, understanding, and consistency. It begins with moisture—water, leave-ins, oils, and butters all support hydration. Natural hair tends to be dry because the curl pattern makes it difficult for natural oils to travel down the strands. This means moisture must be intentionally added.

Protective styles also play a major role in natural hair care. Braids, twists, locs, and updos help prevent breakage, reduce manipulation, and promote growth. Protective styling paired with proper maintenance keeps natural hair healthy and strong.

Understanding your hair type—whether loose curls, tight coils, or somewhere in between—helps determine what products and methods work best. Each curl type has its own needs, and learning them builds a personalized routine that supports growth and retention.

Natural hair care also includes scalp health. A clean, moisturized scalp encourages healthy growth. Oils such as castor, peppermint, jojoba, and rosemary stimulate circulation and nourish the roots. Healthy hair begins with a healthy foundation.

Detangling is another crucial aspect. Using gentle tools, wide-tooth combs, or fingers reduces breakage. Natural hair thrives when handled with care, especially when wet or stretched to minimize tangles.

Heat usage should be kept to a minimum to preserve the curl pattern. Occasional silk presses are fine, but regular heat can cause damage or loss of curl texture. Natural hair flourishes when heat is controlled and used properly.

One essential fact about natural hair is that shrinkage is a sign of health. Shrinkage shows your curls have elasticity and bounce, which means your strands are strong. Instead of being seen as a flaw, shrinkage should be celebrated as proof of vibrancy.

Another fact is that natural hair grows at the same rate as all human hair—about half an inch per month. What affects length retention is breakage, not growth speed. When natural hair is moisturized and protected, it retains its length effortlessly.

Natural hair is deeply spiritual. For many, it represents liberation, self-discovery, and healing. It is a crown God placed on Black heads—a symbol of royalty and resilience. Embracing natural hair becomes an act of honoring oneself and honoring the Creator.

Ultimately, natural hair is beauty, culture, and power woven together. It is a reminder that Black identity is rich, divine, and unique. Embracing natural hair is not just about appearance—it is about reclaiming worth, rejecting narrow beauty standards, and walking confidently in the glory of one’s natural design. Embracing your natural hair is embracing yourself, fully and fearlessly.

References
CROWN Act resources
Psalm 139:14 (identity and creation)
Historical scholarship on Black hair and culture

Afros, Beauty, Black Hair, Good Hair, hair textures, History of Black Hair

The History of the “Afro”

The Afro hairstyle is one of the most iconic and symbolic expressions of Black identity in modern history. It represents far more than fashion—it is a cultural statement, a symbol of pride, and an act of resistance. Rooted in centuries of African tradition, the Afro re-emerged during the 20th century as a political and spiritual symbol of liberation. To understand its history is to trace the evolution of Black consciousness from enslavement to empowerment.

Photo by Alexandre Canteiro on Pexels.com

In pre-colonial Africa, hair was deeply significant. Hairstyles communicated tribe, status, age, religion, and even marital status. The Yoruba, Wolof, and Himba peoples, among others, crafted elaborate styles using natural oils and clay. Hair was not merely aesthetic—it was sacred. The scalp was considered the highest part of the body and, therefore, closest to the Creator. Braiding and grooming rituals reflected intimacy, identity, and spirituality within African societies.

Photo by Marlon Schmeiski on Pexels.com

When the transatlantic slave trade began, these sacred traditions were violently disrupted. Enslaved Africans were often forcibly shaved to strip them of cultural identity and dignity. Hair, once a crown of glory, became a mark of oppression. This degradation marked one of the first psychological tools of dehumanization in slavery. The Eurocentric notion that straight hair was “civilized” and tightly coiled hair was “unkempt” would shape perceptions of beauty for centuries.

Photo by nappy on Pexels.com

In the United States, the late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the rise of Black haircare pioneers who sought both empowerment and assimilation. Madam C. J. Walker, one of America’s first self-made millionaires, revolutionized Black haircare through her line of pressing oils and straightening combs. While her work provided economic independence for Black women, it also reflected the complex tension between cultural pride and societal conformity.

By the 1950s, the dominant beauty ideal in America still revolved around Eurocentric features. Straightened hair was seen as a sign of professionalism and social acceptance. Black men and women often faced discrimination for wearing natural styles in schools and workplaces. Straightening was not merely aesthetic—it was a survival mechanism in a racist society that punished difference.

Photo by nappy on Pexels.com

However, as the Civil Rights Movement gained momentum in the 1960s, a cultural revolution began to reshape Black identity. The Afro re-emerged as a bold expression of defiance and pride. It was no longer just a hairstyle but a political statement that rejected assimilation and embraced authenticity. The Afro became a visual symbol of the slogan “Black is Beautiful,” championed by activists and artists alike.

Figures like Angela Davis, Huey P. Newton, and Kathleen Cleaver of the Black Panther Party used the Afro to embody resistance and revolution. The hairstyle’s natural fullness and unapologetic volume mirrored the growing confidence of the movement. It declared that Black people would no longer conform to oppressive standards or hide their God-given features.

Cultural icons such as Nina Simone, Cicely Tyson, and Pam Grier brought the Afro into mainstream visibility, blending elegance with rebellion. Music, fashion, and film became vehicles for Black expression, and the Afro’s aesthetic began to influence pop culture globally. The hairstyle traveled from the streets of Oakland to the runways of Paris, transforming beauty norms and inspiring pride across the African diaspora.

In the 1970s, the Afro was not only political but fashionable. It evolved into different variations—rounded shapes, picked-out crowns, and sculpted silhouettes. Both men and women wore it proudly as a mark of identity. Commercial brands capitalized on the trend, selling Afro picks adorned with fists—the iconic “Black Power” symbol that merged style and activism.

Photo by Bruno Thethe on Pexels.com

However, the 1980s brought a cultural shift. As the post-civil rights era gave way to corporate professionalism, the Afro was gradually replaced by jheri curls, perms, and other styles perceived as more “modern.” The natural movement dimmed as assimilation pressures returned. Yet, for many, the Afro remained a symbol of authenticity and remembrance of a time when Black pride transformed politics and art.

In the 1990s and early 2000s, the natural hair movement began to resurface. Artists like Lauryn Hill and Erykah Badu resurrected Afrocentric aesthetics, merging spirituality, soul, and Black consciousness. Their influence reignited conversations about self-acceptance and ancestral identity. The Afro re-entered mainstream culture as both a retro style and a symbol of self-love.

The 2010s brought a global renaissance of natural hair culture. Social media became a platform for education and empowerment. Black women shared tutorials, hair journeys, and stories that celebrated the versatility of Afro-textured hair. Hashtags like #NaturalHairMovement and #TeamNatural encouraged unity and representation, fostering a digital community of pride and resistance.

Photo by cottonbro studio on Pexels.com

At the same time, systemic discrimination persisted. Schools and workplaces continued to police natural hairstyles, labeling them as “unprofessional.” The introduction of the CROWN Act (Creating a Respectful and Open World for Natural Hair) in 2019 sought to combat this injustice by legally prohibiting hair-based discrimination. This legislation represents a victory for cultural rights and human dignity.

Globally, the Afro has become a universal symbol of cultural strength and artistic inspiration. From South Africa to Brazil, and from London to the Caribbean, the Afro connects people of African descent to their ancestral roots. It stands as an emblem of resilience—surviving centuries of oppression, yet still radiating dignity and grace.

Spiritually, the Afro reminds many of the scriptural affirmation that “the very hairs of your head are all numbered” (Luke 12:7, KJV). This verse underscores divine intention—every curl, coil, and kink carries purpose and perfection. Wearing an Afro, therefore, is both a celebration of creation and a restoration of cultural order.

The psychology of the Afro reveals how beauty and identity intersect with freedom. It challenges the notion that one must conform to be accepted. Instead, it affirms that true beauty flows from authenticity and self-respect. As bell hooks (1992) noted, reclaiming natural beauty is a revolutionary act in a world that profits from insecurity.

Contemporary art, film, and photography continue to celebrate the Afro as both aesthetic and archive. Artists such as Lorna Simpson and Kerry James Marshall immortalize natural hair as a narrative of memory, power, and belonging. Their works remind audiences that beauty is historical, political, and sacred all at once.

Ultimately, the history of the Afro is a testament to resilience. It chronicles centuries of suppression, survival, and self-reclamation. The Afro endures not merely as a hairstyle but as a movement of liberation—a living monument to the unbreakable spirit of African people.

As the global conversation around race, beauty, and identity evolves, the Afro continues to stand tall—an eternal symbol of pride, freedom, and divine creation. It is not a trend but a testimony, declaring that Blackness, in all its forms, is beautiful beyond measure.

References

  • Asante, M. K. (2003). Afrocentricity: The Theory of Social Change. African American Images.
  • Byrd, A., & Tharps, L. (2014). Hair Story: Untangling the Roots of Black Hair in America. St. Martin’s Press.
  • Davis, A. (1981). Women, Race, and Class. Vintage Books.
  • hooks, b. (1992). Black Looks: Race and Representation. South End Press.
  • Mercer, K. (1987). Black Hair/Style Politics. In New Formations, 3, 33–54.
  • Rooks, N. (1996). Hair Raising: Beauty, Culture, and African American Women. Rutgers University Press.
  • Scripture citations from the Holy Bible, King James Version (KJV).

Black Hair, black-hair, hair, History of Black Hair

Black Women and Hair Activism: From Nappy Roots to #BlackGirlMagic

Photo by Pixabay on Pexels.com

Hair has always been a central marker of identity, culture, and resistance for Black women. From the era of slavery, where enslaved women were forced to conform to Eurocentric beauty standards, to the modern-day #BlackGirlMagic movement, hair has served as both a site of oppression and empowerment. Hair activism represents a form of social and political engagement, challenging systemic discrimination while affirming Black women’s cultural identity.

Historical Context: Slavery and Eurocentric Standards

During slavery in the Americas, Black women were often compelled to alter their natural hair to fit European ideals of beauty, sometimes being shaved or chemically straightened (Byrd & Tharps, 2014). These practices symbolized a broader attempt to erase African identity and enforce subservience, embedding the politics of hair into social hierarchies.

The Civil Rights Era and Nappy Roots

The 1960s and 1970s saw a rise in natural hair as a political statement. The Afro became a symbol of pride, resistance, and Black identity, captured in the phrase “Black is beautiful.” Movements like Nappy Roots (both the cultural reference and musical group) emphasized embracing natural hair, celebrating Black aesthetics, and challenging societal norms.

Workplace and Legal Activism

Despite cultural shifts, Black women continue to face discrimination for natural hairstyles in professional and educational settings. Legal efforts, such as the CROWN Act (Creating a Respectful and Open World for Natural Hair) in the U.S., address hair-based discrimination and underscore the ongoing struggle for equity (Tharps, 2019). Hair activism thus extends beyond aesthetics—it’s about civil rights and self-determination.

The Rise of #BlackGirlMagic

In the 2010s, movements like #BlackGirlMagic and natural hair communities online created global spaces celebrating Black women’s hair, beauty, and accomplishments. Social media platforms have enabled activism, awareness, and community-building, empowering women to reclaim agency over their hair and identity.

Hair as Resistance and Empowerment

Hair activism encompasses education, advocacy, and personal empowerment. For Black women, embracing natural hair is not just an aesthetic choice but a political act, affirming self-worth and resisting systemic bias. It communicates pride, autonomy, and a refusal to conform to oppressive standards.

Psychology and Identity

Research indicates that hair significantly impacts self-esteem and identity formation among Black women (Banks, 2000). Wearing natural hairstyles or participating in hair activism is linked to higher self-confidence, stronger cultural identity, and resistance to internalized oppression.

Conclusion

From Nappy Roots to #BlackGirlMagic, Black hair activism reflects a dynamic intersection of culture, politics, and identity. By embracing natural hair and challenging societal norms, Black women assert autonomy, demand respect, and celebrate their heritage, transforming a personal expression into a collective movement for empowerment.

References

  • Banks, I. (2000). Hair matters: Beauty, power, and Black women’s consciousness. New York: NYU Press.
  • Byrd, A., & Tharps, L. (2014). Hair Story: Untangling the Roots of Black Hair in America. St. Martin’s Press.
  • Tharps, L. L. (2019). The CROWN Act: Natural Hair, Discrimination, and Social Change. Harvard Journal of African American Public Policy, 1(1), 45–60.
  • Robinson, T. (2018). Social media and Black hair activism: #BlackGirlMagic and the politics of identity. Journal of Black Studies, 49(7), 657–676.
  • Tate, S. A. (2007). Hair and the politics of Black women’s identity. Cultural Studies, 21(5), 641–655.

Black Hair, Good Hair, hair, History of Black Hair

Hair Politics: Natural vs. Relaxed Hair in Professional Spaces.

This photograph is the property of its respective owner. No copyright infringement intended.

Hair has always carried meaning far beyond aesthetics—it reflects identity, history, politics, and even survival. For Black women, the politics of hair have long been tied to standards of beauty, professionalism, and self-worth. The debate between natural and relaxed hair is not simply cosmetic but deeply rooted in cultural history, racial oppression, and personal empowerment.

The Politics of Professionalism: Why Straight Hair Still Rules Corporate America

Employers in professional spaces often view straight hair as “neat,” “polished,” and “professional,” while Black kinky or coily hair is stereotyped as “unruly,” “unkept,” or “distracting” (Opie & Phillips, 2015). This bias is rooted in Eurocentric beauty standards that equate professionalism with whiteness. Because historically, straight hair aligns with the dominant white cultural norm, it is unconsciously perceived as the standard of acceptability.

Psychologically, this is linked to implicit bias—where people associate straight hair with competence, intelligence, and leadership, while natural Afro-textured hair triggers stereotypes of defiance or lack of refinement (Rosette & Dumas, 2007). Such perceptions are not about actual job performance but about conformity to white workplace culture.

Professionalism is not just about skill, education, or work ethic—it is often policed through appearance. For Black women, the workplace has historically imposed Eurocentric standards of beauty, particularly regarding hair. Employers frequently equate straight hair with professionalism, while natural kinky or coily textures are deemed “unruly,” “distracting,” or even “unprofessional.” This double standard has real consequences for Black women navigating corporate spaces.

The Legacy of Eurocentric Standards

The preference for straight hair in professional environments is rooted in colonial and Eurocentric ideals. Whiteness became the cultural baseline for what is considered polished, disciplined, and professional. Straight hair has long symbolized assimilation into white norms, whereas natural Afro-textured hair is often stigmatized as resistant or defiant. This has less to do with workplace performance and more to do with conformity to dominant cultural values.

Psychology and Bias

Psychological studies reveal how implicit bias shapes perceptions of hair. Research by Opie and Phillips (2015) shows that Black women with Afrocentric hairstyles (such as braids, Afros, or dreadlocks) are more likely to be rated as less professional, less competent, and less dominant compared to women with straightened hair. These evaluations are not objective assessments of skill, but rather cultural biases projected onto appearance. In essence, natural Black hair challenges white-centered notions of professionalism.

A Real-World Example: The Case of Chastity Jones

One of the most well-known workplace discrimination cases involving hair was Chastity Jones v. Catastrophe Management Solutions (2016). Jones, a Black woman, was offered a job at a call center but had her offer rescinded when she refused to cut her dreadlocks. The employer claimed that dreadlocks “tend to get messy,” despite the fact that her hair was neat and well-kept. Jones sued for racial discrimination, but the U.S. Court of Appeals ruled in favor of the employer, stating that hairstyle is not an “immutable characteristic” like race itself, and therefore not legally protected under Title VII. This case highlights how Black women’s natural hair continues to be penalized in ways straight hair never is.

The Emotional and Professional Toll

This bias creates psychological burdens for Black women who feel pressured to chemically relax, straighten, or otherwise alter their hair to fit workplace expectations. The choice is not simply aesthetic—it becomes a question of employability, respect, and economic survival. Constantly managing one’s hair to avoid discrimination can lead to stress, anxiety, and a diminished sense of authenticity. It also forces many Black women to choose between professional advancement and cultural self-expression.

The Rise of Natural Hair Movements

Despite this discrimination, movements like the Natural Hair Movement and campaigns such as #BlackGirlMagic and #CROWNAct have gained momentum. The CROWN Act (Create a Respectful and Open Workplace for Natural Hair) seeks to legally ban hair-based discrimination, affirming that Black hair in its natural state—braids, locs, twists, Afros—should be respected as professional. States like California, New York, and New Jersey have already passed the CROWN Act, with efforts expanding nationally.

The Science of Hair and Health Risks

Beyond social pressure, many relaxers and chemical straighteners carry health risks. Studies link long-term relaxer use to uterine fibroids, early puberty, and even increased cancer risk (Wise et al., 2012; Rosenberg et al., 2022). Straight hair may align with workplace expectations, but at the cost of Black women’s health. Natural kinky hair, on the other hand, is structurally stronger, better at retaining moisture, and scientifically designed to protect the scalp from the sun. What employers deem “unprofessional” is biologically one of the healthiest hair types.

The History of Hair Relaxers

Chemical hair relaxers first appeared in the early 20th century, pioneered by Madam C.J. Walker and other entrepreneurs who created products marketed to straighten Black hair for easier manageability and social acceptance (Bundles, 2001). By the mid-1900s, relaxers had become normalized, especially during the Civil Rights era when assimilation into white-dominated professional spaces was often tied to straightened hair. However, the rise of the natural hair movement in the 1960s and 1970s reintroduced Afrocentric pride, with natural hair symbolizing resistance and authenticity.

Relaxers use harsh chemicals such as sodium hydroxide, guanidine hydroxide, or ammonium thioglycolate to break down protein bonds in the hair shaft, permanently altering curl patterns (Robinson, 2011). Studies have shown that prolonged relaxer use can lead to scalp burns, hair thinning, breakage, and alopecia (Nkwocha, 2018). More concerning are the potential health risks: research suggests a correlation between chemical relaxer use and higher risks of fibroids, reproductive health issues, and even certain cancers (Wise et al., 2012). This raises the question of whether beauty should come at the expense of health.

The Love for Straight Hair and Its History

Many Black women’s affinity for straight hair is rooted in centuries of Eurocentric beauty ideals imposed during slavery and colonialism. Straight hair was historically associated with whiteness, cleanliness, and professionalism, while kinky or coily textures were stigmatized as “unkempt” or “inferior” (Patton, 2006). Assimilation into mainstream culture often meant altering one’s natural texture to access opportunities and avoid discrimination. Thus, the preference for straight hair is less about beauty alone and more about survival and acceptance in systems of white supremacy.

Why Natural Hair is Better

Natural hair carries cultural, spiritual, and health advantages. It allows the scalp and strands to thrive without chemical damage, preserving thickness and elasticity. It also honors heritage and affirms identity, serving as a visual declaration of authenticity and self-love. From a health perspective, embracing natural hair reduces exposure to toxic chemicals, supporting overall well-being (Byrd & Tharps, 2014).

The Science of Kinky Hair

Kinky and coily hair is structurally different from straight or wavy hair. Research shows that the elliptical shape of the hair follicle creates tight curls, which are more prone to dryness since natural oils have difficulty traveling down the shaft (Tate, 2009). While this fragility requires special care, it also provides unique styling versatility and natural volume unmatched by other hair types. Rather than being seen as “difficult,” kinky hair is scientifically a crown of complexity and resilience.

Biblical Reflections on Hair

The Bible references hair as a symbol of glory, strength, and consecration. “But if a woman have long hair, it is a glory to her: for her hair is given her for a covering” (1 Corinthians 11:15, KJV). While the Bible does not specify texture, it underscores hair as a natural gift from God. Altering it for societal acceptance raises questions about identity and divine intention. Thus, natural hair can be embraced as a reflection of God’s design rather than something to be suppressed.

The Psychology of Black Hair

Hair is central to self-concept and cultural belonging. For Black women, hair-related stress is well documented, with many experiencing “hair anxiety” in professional settings due to bias (Opie & Phillips, 2015). Psychologically, choosing natural hair often leads to greater self-acceptance and reduced internalized racism, while reliance on relaxers may be tied to conformity and fear of rejection. Hair, then, becomes both a personal and political battlefield, influencing mental health and identity formation.

Conclusion: Hair as Liberation

Ultimately, the debate between natural and relaxed hair is about more than style; it is about health, freedom, and authenticity. Natural hair resists centuries of oppression, honors cultural heritage, and prioritizes well-being. While each woman has the autonomy to choose, the growing embrace of natural textures in professional spaces signals a shift toward liberation. The politics of hair remind us that Black beauty is not something to be corrected—it is something to be celebrated. The real question is not whether natural Black hair is professional—it always has been—but rather why workplaces continue to uphold Eurocentric standards as the benchmark. By associating straight hair with competence, corporate America perpetuates racial inequality under the guise of professionalism. A shift toward inclusivity means challenging these assumptions and affirming that professionalism is about skills, not conformity to white aesthetics.

References

  • Bundles, A. L. (2001). On Her Own Ground: The Life and Times of Madam C.J. Walker. Scribner.
  • Byrd, A., & Tharps, L. (2014). Hair Story: Untangling the Roots of Black Hair in America. St. Martin’s Press.
  • Nkwocha, I. (2018). The harmful effects of hair relaxers: A health review. Journal of Public Health and Epidemiology, 10(3), 99–106.
  • Opie, T., & Phillips, K. W. (2015). Hair penalties: The negative influence of Afrocentric hair on ratings of Black women’s dominance and professionalism. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1311.
  • Patton, T. O. (2006). Hey girl, am I more than my hair? African American women and their struggles with beauty, body image, and hair. NWSA Journal, 18(2), 24–51.
  • Robinson, C. (2011). Hair Loss Disorders in Ethnic Populations. Springer.
  • Tate, S. A. (2009). Black Beauty: Aesthetics, Stylization, Politics. Ashgate.
  • Wise, L. A., Palmer, J. R., Reich, D., & Rosenberg, L. (2012). Hair relaxer use and risk of uterine leiomyomata in African-American women. American Journal of Epidemiology, 175(5), 432–440.

EEOC v. Catastrophe Management Solutions, 852 F.3d 1018 (11th Cir. 2016).

Opie, T., & Phillips, K. W. (2015). Hair penalties: The negative influence of Afrocentric hair on ratings of Black women’s dominance and professionalism. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1311.

Rosette, A. S., & Dumas, T. L. (2007). The hair dilemma: Conform to mainstream expectations or emphasize racial identity. Duke Journal of Gender Law & Policy, 14(1), 407–421.