Tag Archives: Tulsa

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Black History: Black Millionaires They Tried to Erase from History.

In early 20th‑century America, Black entrepreneurs in segregated communities defied racism by generating unprecedented wealth. These men and women built thriving businesses, owned property, and created entire economic ecosystems — only to have their legacies diminished, erased, or violently destroyed by systemic racism and white supremacist violence.

In Tulsa, Oklahoma, the Greenwood district — known as “Black Wall Street” — was one of the most remarkable examples of Black prosperity in American history. Founded by visionary Black businessmen and professionals, Greenwood became a symbol of independence, economic self‑sufficiency, and community resilience.

Among Greenwood’s earliest millionaires was O.W. Gurley, a real‑estate developer and entrepreneur. Born to formerly enslaved parents in Alabama, Gurley moved to Tulsa and purchased land designated for Black ownership. He built hotels, apartment buildings, a grocery store, and sponsored other local businesses, accumulating an estimated net worth that translated into the millions in today’s dollars.

Gurley’s success helped inspire others to invest in Greenwood. J.B. Stradford, another eminent figure, was the son of an emancipated slave who became a lawyer, real‑estate magnate, and hotelier. His crowning achievement was the Stradford Hotel, the largest Black‑owned hotel in the United States at the time. It offered luxury services equal to those in white Tulsa and hosted a thriving social life, attracting wealthy travelers and local elites.

John and Loula Williams were another Black power couple in Greenwood. They owned multiple businesses — including the Dreamland Theatre, a confectionary, and a rooming house — and became among the wealthiest Black residents. Loula was a partner in these ventures, showing how women also played central roles in building Black wealth.

Greenwood was far more than a collection of storefronts: it had its own bank, schools, hospital, newspaper, and even private transportation networks, all built and operated by Black entrepreneurs. The Tulsa Star, founded by A.J. Smitherman, became a prominent voice advocating civil rights, economic empowerment, and community solidarity.

Despite this economic miracle, Greenwood was targeted by white supremacists fearful of Black success. From May 31 to June 1, 1921, a white mob attacked the district in what is now known as the Tulsa Race Massacre, burning businesses, homes, and churches to the ground. Up to 300 Black residents were killed and roughly 1,200 homes destroyed. This coordinated assault erased generational wealth in a matter of hours.

The destruction of Greenwood exemplifies how racial violence was used to prevent Black Americans from maintaining wealth and influence. Millionaires like Gurley and Stradford lost everything; there was no restitution for survivors or descendants for decades. Their stories, once widely known locally, faded from mainstream historical memory.

Beyond Tulsa, there were other Black millionaires whose achievements were overshadowed or forgotten due to systemic racism. Jake Simmons Jr., an oilman from Oklahoma, became one of the most successful Black oil entrepreneurs in the mid‑20th century, partnering with major petroleum companies and opening opportunities in Africa’s energy sector. His rise showcased Black leadership in the global industry, yet his legacy remains underrecognized.

Black businesspeople in areas outside Tulsa also built considerable wealth during Jim Crow. In many segregated towns and cities, Black physicians, lawyers, educators, and merchants created thriving practices serving Black customers, generating stable incomes and propelling local economies. However, many were omitted from national business histories, minimized by the dominant narrative.

Black Millionaires Who Were Erased or Forgotten

  1. O.W. Gurley – Real estate developer and founder of Greenwood, Tulsa (“Black Wall Street”). Built hotels, grocery stores, and a thriving Black community before the Tulsa Race Massacre destroyed his fortune.
  2. J.B. Stradford – Lawyer and entrepreneur; owner of the Stradford Hotel, the largest Black-owned hotel in the U.S. before 1921. Lost property in the Tulsa Race Massacre.
  3. John and Loula Williams – Business power couple in Greenwood, owning multiple enterprises including theaters, confectionaries, and rooming houses.
  4. A.J. Smitherman – Publisher of the Tulsa Star, the influential newspaper in Greenwood that advocated Black economic empowerment and civil rights.
  5. Jake Simmons Jr. – Oklahoma oil tycoon and international businessman; instrumental in opening opportunities in Africa’s oil sector.
  6. Moses Austin – Early 19th-century businessman who invested in land and local enterprises; lesser-known due to records focusing on white counterparts.
  7. Paul Cuffe – African American entrepreneur and shipowner in the late 18th and early 19th centuries; financed Black migration to Sierra Leone and traded globally.
  8. Madam C.J. Walker – First female self-made millionaire in America through haircare and beauty products; her story was overshadowed for decades despite her philanthropy.
  9. Robert Reed Church – Memphis real estate mogul; accumulated wealth through investments and urban development in the post-Civil War South.
  10. Anthony Overton – Entrepreneur and publisher; owned the Overton Hygienic Company and the Chicago Bee newspaper.
  11. Alonzo Herndon – Founder of Atlanta Life Insurance Company; born enslaved and became one of the wealthiest Black men in the U.S.
  12. Norbert Rillieux – Inventor and businessman; revolutionized sugar refining and built wealth that was largely unrecognized in mainstream history.
  13. John H. Johnson – Founder of Johnson Publishing Company (Ebony, Jet); a 20th-century millionaire whose financial influence in media is often underappreciated.
  14. Viola Fletcher – Survivor and symbolic figure of Tulsa’s Greenwood, representing families who had generational wealth destroyed in the massacre.
  15. Samuel Coleridge-Taylor (U.S. connections) – Composer and businessman in music ventures; recognized in Europe but often omitted from U.S. economic history discussions.
  16. Mary Ellen Pleasant – Wealthy Black entrepreneur and philanthropist in San Francisco during the 19th century; aided civil rights causes but was historically obscured.
  17. Madison Jones – Oil and landowner in the early 20th century; wealth erased through discriminatory policies and lack of historical recognition.
  18. John Merrick – Founder of North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company; amassed wealth but is often only recognized regionally.
  19. Robert W. Johnson – Entrepreneur in early 1900s Chicago; built wealth in real estate and business before being written out of mainstream histories.
  20. Frederick McGhee – Lawyer and businessman; helped build economic infrastructure for Black communities in Minneapolis but largely forgotten in national narratives.

The erasure of these figures was not accidental. Throughout U.S. history, Black success has been met with legislative discrimination, economic exclusion, violence, and historical suppression. After the massacre, Greenwood’s rebuilt community prospered again for decades — only to be dismantled a second time in the mid‑20th century through “urban renewal” projects and highway construction that obliterated much of the neighborhood.

The consequences of this erasure persist. Without preservation and education about these Black millionaires, their contributions are excluded from textbooks, newspapers, and national consciousness. This has furthered false narratives that Black communities did not achieve economic success prior to the Civil Rights Movement.

Historians and activists today work to recover these stories, ensuring that Gurley, Stradford, the Williamses, Simmons, and many more are acknowledged as pioneers of Black wealth in America. Their legacy demonstrates profound resilience and innovation under adversity.

Black Wall Street’s destruction also disrupted generational wealth transfer; properties and businesses never regained their pre‑1921 value, and families were denied inheritance opportunities that could have sustained future prosperity.

In recent years, Tulsa has taken steps to confront its history. Reparations efforts, educational initiatives, and public memorialization aim to restore recognition for Greenwood’s lost entrepreneurs and honor survivors like Viola Fletcher, who testified about the massacre’s enduring impact.

The story of these Black millionaires is a reminder that racial oppression targeted not only individual lives but collective economic power. Their erasure from history reflects broader social resistance to acknowledging Black achievement.

Engaging with these histories allows for a more accurate understanding of American capitalism, one that includes both Black contributions and the violence used to undermine them.

Recognizing Black millionaires lost to history also challenges contemporary narratives about wealth, race, and opportunity, showing clearly that Black success was possible — and existed — long before today’s conversations about equity and inclusion.

These narratives also inspire modern generations of Black entrepreneurs, emphasizing the importance of legacy, community investment, and perseverance despite systemic barriers.

Understanding the erased histories of Black millionaires is vital not only for historical accuracy but for framing present discussions about wealth inequality, reparations, and racial justice in the United States.

References

National Geographic Society. (n.d.). Before the Tulsa Race Massacre, Black business was booming in Greenwood. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/history-magazine/article/before-tulsa-race-massacre-black-business-booming-greenwood

History.com Editors. (n.d.). 9 Entrepreneurs Who Helped Build Tulsa’s “Black Wall Street”. HISTORY. https://www.history.com/articles/black-wall-street-tulsa-visionaries

CNBC. (2020). What Is “Black Wall Street”? History of the community and its massacre. CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2020/07/04/what-is-black-wall-street-history-of-the-community-and-its-massacre.html

ABC7 New York. (n.d.). Tulsa Race Massacre: Story behind Black Wall Street destroyed by racist mob. https://abc7ny.com/tulsa-race-massacre-1921-black-wall-street-greenwood/10707747

Wikipedia contributors. (n.d.). Greenwood District, Tulsa. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwood_District%2C_Tulsa

Wikipedia contributors. (n.d.). Jake Simmons. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jake_Simmons

Wikipedia contributors. (n.d.). Viola Fletcher. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viola_Fletcher

american history, black history, history, racism

“Black Wall Street: The Rise, Destruction, and Legacy of Tulsa’s Greenwood District”

Photo by Dawn Traylor on Pexels.com

Introduction

Known as “Black Wall Street,” the Greenwood District of Tulsa, Oklahoma, was one of the most affluent African American communities in the United States in the early 20th century. It symbolized Black excellence, entrepreneurship, and self-sufficiency during a time when Jim Crow laws sought to suppress African American progress. However, this thriving community was violently destroyed in one of the most horrific episodes of racial terrorism in U.S. history—the Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921.

The Birth of Black Wall Street

Greenwood, located in north Tulsa, was founded in 1906 on land initially settled by Black Freedmen and Native Americans, many of whom were formerly enslaved and had received land allotments through the Dawes Act (Johnson, 1998). Visionary entrepreneurs like O.W. Gurley, a wealthy Black landowner from Arkansas, bought 40 acres and helped build a self-sufficient Black community.

By the 1920s, Greenwood boasted:

  • Over 300 Black-owned businesses
  • Two newspapers
  • Schools, libraries, hospitals
  • Luxury hotels, grocery stores, law offices, barbershops, theaters, and nightclubs

Some of the most notable establishments included:

  • The Stradford Hotel, one of the finest Black-owned hotels in the U.S.
  • Williams Dreamland Theatre
  • Greenwood Avenue, the bustling economic artery of the district

This self-sustained economy became so prosperous that Booker T. Washington reportedly called it “Negro Wall Street.”

The Incident: Allegation and the Spark

The tragedy began on May 30, 1921, when a 19-year-old Black shoe shiner named Dick Rowland entered an elevator operated by a 17-year-old white woman named Sarah Page in the Drexel Building. Accounts vary, but some say he tripped and grabbed her arm to break his fall. Others claim nothing happened at all. Page screamed, and a clerk called the police. Though Sarah Page later refused to press charges, rumors of an alleged sexual assault spread rapidly through white Tulsa.

On May 31, 1921, a white mob gathered outside the courthouse where Rowland was being held. Armed Black men, including World War I veterans, came to protect him. Tensions escalated into gunfire, and by nightfall, white mobs launched a full-scale assault on Greenwood.

The Destruction of Black Wall Street

For over 18 hours, from the night of May 31 through June 1, 1921, white rioters—many of them deputized by law enforcement—looted, burned, and murdered indiscriminately. They set fire to over 1,200 homes, dozens of churches, businesses, and schools. Reports suggest private planes dropped incendiary bombs on the neighborhood—a rare instance of aerial terrorism on American soil.

Casualty estimates vary:

  • Official records say around 36 deaths
  • Modern scholars and eyewitnesses estimate 100–300 Black residents were killed (Ellsworth, 2001)

Over 10,000 Black residents were left homeless, and the community’s wealth was wiped out overnight.

Racism at the Core

The attack was fueled by racist resentment and economic jealousy. Many white Tulsans were angry that Black people in Greenwood had achieved so much success while white families in Tulsa struggled economically. The accusation against Rowland was merely a pretext. The real motive was to eradicate Black prosperity and enforce white supremacy.

White mobs faced no legal consequences, and insurance companies denied claims from Black property owners, citing “riot clauses.” The massacre was largely ignored in history books for decades.

Survivors and Testimonies

Some survivors lived into the 21st century and gave harrowing accounts. Notable among them:

  • Viola Fletcher, 107 years old, testified before Congress in 2021, saying, “I will never forget the violence… the smell of smoke, bodies in the street, the loss of my childhood.”
  • Her brother, Hughes Van Ellis, also a veteran, emphasized how America failed them after they served in its military.

Rebuilding and Present-Day Tulsa

Greenwood began modest rebuilding efforts in the 1920s and 30s, but never recovered its pre-1921 affluence. Systemic racism, redlining, and urban renewal programs (including a highway built through Greenwood) further dismantled its infrastructure.

Today, the area is home to the Greenwood Cultural Center and John Hope Franklin Reconciliation Park, preserving the memory of the massacre.

In 2021, the centennial drew national attention. Some local leaders and descendants called for reparations, but most survivors have not received any formal compensation.

Economically, Tulsa is now growing, but the Black community still experiences vast inequality in wealth, housing, and opportunity (Oklahoma Policy Institute, 2021).

Legacy and Importance

Black Wall Street represents more than tragedy—it symbolizes the potential of Black enterprise, resilience, and innovation in the face of white supremacy. It challenges the narrative that African Americans have not built wealth or institutions. Greenwood was that wealth, was that institution—and it was destroyed not by failure but by hatred.

Conclusion

The story of Black Wall Street and the Tulsa Race Massacre is not just a Black history story—it is an American story. It speaks to the power of Black excellence and the violence of white supremacy. As America reckons with its past, the memory of Greenwood remains a testament to what Black communities can achieve—and what they have suffered.

References

  • Ellsworth, S. (2001). Death in a Promised Land: The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921. LSU Press.
  • Johnson, H. B. (1998). Black Wall Street: From Riot to Renaissance in Tulsa’s Historic Greenwood District. Eakin Press.
  • Oklahoma Policy Institute. (2021). The State of Black Tulsa: Equity Indicators. Retrieved from https://okpolicy.org
  • U.S. Congress. (2021). Testimony of Tulsa Race Massacre Survivors. Congressional Record.